“Why should I learn bahasa?” and “Is learning Indonesian really worth it?” are only a few of the questions we hear from non-Indonesian speaking people who live in Indonesia. They happen to stay in Indonesia for some reasons, either it is because they have been hired to work in one of a multi national companies in Indonesia, or because they are housewives and children who are following their husbands and fathers who are working in Indonesia, or even some seasonal tourists who like to visit Indonesia many times.
It is widely known that there are not many Indonesian people who can communicate in English well, including those who are supposed to be able to speak in English, such as shop assistants, office boys and girls, drivers, and others who have to interact with people around them most of the time. Most of these people have learned how to speak English during school and yet they don’t really know how to communicate with a foreigner using the proper English language. So there is no other choice for the expatriates here trying to learn bahasa. It is the only way for them to be able to communicate with the Indonesian people.

Download Language Practice Questions for University Exam Entrance

Indonesia Language Practice Questions – UI Exam Entrance 2010

Learning Indonesian might seem a hassle at the beginning. Indonesian language or bahasa Indonesia is one of the easiest languages in the world. It is simply because there is hardly any grammar in the language itself, especially if you want to learn bahasa only to enable you to communicate with the local people.
If you want to interact with the local people, especially if you want to be part of them or want to know their culture, or at least, just to be able to communicate with the Indonesian people, learning Indonesian is the first step you must do when you first step your feet in Indonesia.

Conclusions and Implications
It can be deduced from this study that some levels of foreign language anxiety are experienced by beginning students in’ response to some aspects of foreign language learning. The study further suggests that anxiety experienced in foreign language learning (Spanish in this case) does not necessarily decline or diminish as students progress from first semester to second semester; rather, the apprehension levels seem to increase slightly during the second semester of language acquisition. This may be explained by the fact that, in most cases, Spanish 102 takes students from beginning language concepts taught in the first semester to more complex grammar levels, such as the use of the subjunctive mode. Also, SPA 102 instructors use the target language more frequently in the classroom with a much more extensive vocabulary.

Indonesia language Test Snmptn 2008 Code Test 101

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Because anxiety seems to be inherent in the learning process of beginning university students of foreign languages, reducing language apprehension should be an intrinsic part of any such program. Some of the affective techniques to alleviate feelings of anxiety cited by modern-language teaching experts are:
* Making students aware that being fluent and getting a good accent in the target language take in most cases several years of study and practice.
* Providing students with positive reinforcement and creating a relaxed classroom environment.
* Helping students that have a mental block towards language learning by providing them with out-of-the-classroom individual assistance.
Some teaching methods that can also be adopted to reduce classroom anxiety may be
* Conducting class activities in groups.
* Explaining grammar concepts in beginning and elementary classes in the native, not in the target language.
* Forming support groups for performance-concerned students so they can discuss concerns and difficulties encountered in language learning.
* Using smaller classes to help instructors identify students experiencing anxiety and give them special attention and support.
Besides these affective and pedagogical methods, universities should adopt innovative approaches to minimize apprehension and maximize student achievement. Because the class composition of modern language programs in institutions of higher learning includes students from different disciplines, it is common to find classes that include majors from arts and sciences, education, health professions, business, social and behavioral sciences, engineering and technology, and so on. Some of the students plan to continue their studies abroad.
Generally, the course content taught in these regular language classes has no bearing on the needs and expectations of students. All too frequently course content does little to interest or to prepare them as adults about ready to join the working world. It is not surprising that for many of them their foreign language studies seem too futile to be worth their effort.
In order to get students involved in activities resulting in the desired learning, universities need to develop curricula designed for the specific language purposes of identified groups. These curricula should be clearly allied to content-based instruction in the particular discipline of the student (Johns, 1991), specifically, the curriculum for students should be tied to the answers to the following questions:
* What will these students be doing with the foreign language when they finish the classes?
* What are the characteristics of the language they need in order to succeed?
Thus, the content of foreign language programs should be based upon the most systematic, accurate, and empirical measures of students’ needs and of the language required by the tasks they must perform outside of the classroom. This content-based approach should emphasize the learning of the foreign language in conjunction with subject matter so that they integrate particular content with language teaching aims (Graves, 1996). This could be achieved through close interdepartmental cooperation.
To summarize, in order to alleviate anxiety in foreign language university students by minimizing their apathy and disinterest in curricula that is unrelated to their needs, educators ought to provide meaningful content that is akin to their particular disciplines. An example of this approach would be to develop curricula for professional disciplines, such as health professions, business, science and technology, and law, and different curricula for academic purposes, for instance, for students majoring in the language or for those pursuing their undergraduate or postgraduate studies abroad.

Appendix 1
The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale *

Question # SA A N D SD **

when I am speaking in my foreign
language class.
2. I don’t worry about making mistakes
in language class.
to be called on in language class.
understand what the teacher is
saying in the foreign language.
more foreign language.
6. During language class, I find myself
thinking about things that have
students are better at languages
my language class.
without preparation in language
class.
10. I worry about the consequences of
failing my foreign language class.
11. I don’t understand why some people
get so upset over foreign language
classes.
12. In language class, I can get so
nervous I forget things I know.
13. It embarrasses me to volunteer
answers in my language class.
14. I would not be nervous speaking in
the foreign language with native
speakers.
15. I get upset when I don’t understand
what the teacher is correcting.
16. Even if I am well prepared for
language class, I feel anxious
language class.
18. I feel confident when I speak in
foreign language class.
19. I am afraid that my language
teacher is ready to correct every
mistake I make.
language class.
21. The more I study for a language
test, the more confused I get.
22. I don’t feel pressure to prepare
very well for language class.
students speak the language better
24. I feel very self-concious about
speaking the foreign language in
front of other students.
25. Language class moves so quickly I
language class than in my other
classes.
27. I get nervous and confused when I
am speaking in my language class.
28. When I’m on my way to language
29. I get nervous when I
don’t understand every word the
language teacher says.
rules you have to learn to speak a
foreign language.
31. I am afraid that the other students
will laugh at me when I speak the
foreign language.
around native speakers of the
foreign language.
33. I get nervous when the language
teacher asks questions which I
haven’t prepared in advance.

* Source: The FLCAS is reproduced from Foreign Language Classroom
Anxiety, MLJ, Volume 70, Number 2 by permission of the author and
publisher.

** SA=Strongly agree; A=Agree; N=Neither agree nor disagree;
D=Disagree; SD=Strongly Disagree
Table 1
Summated Scale Scores

Summated Scale Score Title Individual Survey Items

Fear of Negative Evaluation Q7 Q23 Q31 Q15
Table 2
Mean and Standard Deviation for the 33 FLCAS Questions by Group

Group 1 (SPA 101) N=114 Group 2 (SPA 102) N=169
Mean Scores Standard Dev. Mean Scores Standard Dev.

Question #1 2.92 1.04 2.76 1.10
Table 3
Difference in levels of anxiety between First-semester and
Second-semester University Spanish students.

ONE-WAY ANOVA
Between Groups df 1
Within Groups df 281

value of f Significance

Question #1 1.456 0.229
Table 4
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Communication Apprehension
Summated Scale Score per Group

Group Total Number of Subjects Mean Score Standard Deviation
Table 5
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Fear of Negative Evaluation
Summated Scale Score per Group

Group Total Number of Subjects Mean Score Standard Deviation
Table 6
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for General Feeling of Anxiety
Summated Scale Score per Group

Group Total Number of Subjects Mean Score Standard Deviation
Table 7
Results of Multivariate Analysis of Variance Comparing Groups One and
Group Two on Set of Three Average Summated Scale Scores

Test Computed Value F-equivalent
Of Statistic

Wilks’ Lambda 0.978 2.056
Roy’s Greatest Root 0.022 2.056
Hotelling-Lawley Trace 0.022 2.056
Pillai Trace 0.022 2.056

Test Degrees of Associated p-value
Freedom

Wilks’ Lambda (3,278) 0.1064
Roy’s Greatest Root (3,278) 0.1064
Hotelling-Lawley Trace (3,278) 0.1064
Pillai Trace (3,278) 0.1064
Table 8
Results of Fisher’s PLSD Follow-up Test to Isolate Source(s) of
Between-Group Average Difference Within Set of Summated Scale Scores

Summated Scale Mean Critical Associated
Score Difference Difference p-value

Communication
Apprehension 1.891 1.594 0.0202 * sig
Fear of Negative
Evaluation 0.857 0.832 0.0437 * sig
General Feeling of
Anxiety 10.18 1.068 0.0616 N.S.

References
Graves, Kathleen. 1996. “A Framework of Course Development Processes.” in Teachers as Course Developers, ed. Richards, Jack. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Horwitz, Elaine K., Horwitz, Michael B. and Cope, Joann. 1986. “Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.” The Modern Language Journal, 70 (2): 125-132.
Johns, Ann. 1991. “English for Specific Purposes,” in Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, Ed. Celce-Murcia, Marianee. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Lader, Malcom H. 1975. “The Nature of Clinical Anxiety in Modern Society,” in Stress and Anxiety, ed. Spielberger, Charles D. and Sarason, Irwin G., Volume I. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
MacIntyre, Peter D. and Gardner, Robert C. 1991. “Methods and Results in the Study of Anxiety and Language Learning: A Review of Literature.” Language Learning, 41 (1): 85-114.
MacIntyre, Peter D. and Noels, Kimberly A. 1996. “Using Social-Psychological Variables to Predict the Use of Language Learning Strategies.” Foreign Language 29 (3): 373-385.
MacIntyre, Peter D., Noels, Kimberly A. and Clement, Richard. 1997. “Biases in Self-ratings of Second Language Proficiency: The Role of Language Anxiety.” Language Learning, 47 (2): 272-278.
Scovel, Thomas. 1978. “The Effect of Affect in Foreign Language Learning: A Review of the Anxiety Research.” Language Learning, 28 (1): 129-142.
Spielberger, Charles D. 1983. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
MATT A. CASADO, ED.D.
MARY I. DERESHIWSKY, PH.D.
Northern Arizona University
COPYRIGHT 2001 Project Innovation (Alabama)
COPYRIGHT 2002 Gale Group

Methodology
The Setting and Subjects
This study was designed to identify and compare the perceptions of first and second-semester university students towards feelings of anxiety experienced during foreign language learning as measured by the FLCAS scale. Specifically, the objective of this study was to investigate and compare the perceptions of 114 students (Group One) surveyed at Northern Arizona University during the third week of their first-semester Spanish class with those of 169 students (Group Two) surveyed at the same institution during the three last weeks of their’ second-semester Spanish class. The null hypothesis postulated and tested to determine if there were differences between the two groups in the perceptions they held towards foreign language anxiety was “there is no significant difference of perceptions between Group One and Group Two for each one of the FLCAS thirty-three variables towards anxiety in foreign language learning.” If the levels of anxiety at the end of the second semester of the students taking Spanish were significantly lower than the levels of anxiety of students at the beginning of their first-semester Spanish, it could be argued that anxiety would have diminished or dissipated as students persevered in the study of the foreign language. On the other hand, if the levels of anxiety shown by students at the end of their second-semester Spanish were similar to or higher than the levels of anxiety shown by the students at the beginning of the first-semester Spanish, it could be argued that anxiety is specific to beginning foreign language learning and that it does not necessarily diminish with increased experience and proficiency during the two semesters of foreign language acquisition.
The sample that Group One (first-semester Spanish) represented consisted of 114 students from five introductory Spanish classes (SPA 101) randomly selected from 34 courses taught (17 each semester) in the spring and fall semesters of 1998, The sample that Group Two (second-semester Spanish) represented consisted of 169 students from ten second-semester Spanish classes (SPA 102) randomly selected from 20 courses also taught (10 each semester) in the spring and fall semesters of 1999 at Northern Arizona University. Design
This comparative study possesses the characteristics of descriptive/analytical research in that it is concerned with the perceptions of respondents. The type of descriptive research was the survey method. ANOVA values were found for the thirty-three variables for the two groups. Values significantly higher than p rejected the null hypothesis at the 0.05 probability level. Values found not to be significant indicated that the perceptions of the groups were statistically similar.
The instrument for the survey was the FLCAS questionnaire shown as Appendix 1. The questionnaire consisted of thirty-three items, each one on a 5-point scale ranging from “strongly agree” (scale point 1) to “strongly disagree” (scale point 5) the middle point being neutral (scale point 3). The purpose of the scale is to examine the scope and severity of foreign language anxiety. The scale has demonstrated internal reliability, achieving an alpha coefficient of .93 with all items producing significant corrected item-total scale corrections. Test-reliability over eight weeks yielded an r = .83 (p<.001) (Horwitz et al. 1986). Anxiety scores lower than 3.0 would indicate some level of anxiety for questions 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33. Anxiety scores higher than 3.0 would indicate some level of anxiety for questions 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 32.
To take into account the potential violation of the independence assumption that is part of univariate tests of between-group difference, three summated scale scores were created by adding together the scores of individual survey items. Due to the fact that there was likely to be content overlap or multicollinearity among the summated scores, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test for significance of between-group differences. Application of the MANOVA allowed the researchers to consider the three summated scale scores for each subject as a potentially intercorrelated or overlapping set of measures. At the same time, the MANOVA statistical test was used to preserve the overall alpha Type I error rate in the between-group difference testing. The data was processed using the SPSS Statistical Package.

Results
Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation for answers to the thirty-three questions by group. For Group One, levels of anxiety were found in responses to questions 1, 14, 22, 28, 30, 32, and 37 (7 questions). For Group Two, levels of anxiety were found in responses to questions 1, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, 22, 30, 32, and 33 (11 questions). Table 3 shows the ANOVA value of F obtained by dividing the between-mean square by the within-mean square of scores, and the significance value for each question. The results indicate that the perceptions of the two groups were significantly different at a 0.05 level in five of the questions posed (3, 5, 12, 16, 19), while the perceptions on the remaining twenty-eight questions were statistically similar. Inspection of the scores for the five questions with significant differences reveals that in question 3, “I tremble when I know that I’m going to be called on in language class,” both groups disagree about trembling when called in class, although second semester students (M=3.63) were less confident in their perceptions than first semester students (M=3.98). Question 5 asked students whether “it wouldn’t bother them at all to take more foreign language.” Both groups agreed, SPA 102 students again being significantly less confident (M=2.70) than SPA 101 students (M=2.41). Students of SPA 101 disagreed (M=3.32) while SPA 102 agreed (M=2.93), the latter being significantly less confident about the answer. On question 16, “even if I am well prepared for language class, I feel anxious about it,” first semester (M=3.36) and second semester (M=3.11) student disagree, the mean score of SPA 102 students being lower than that of SPA 101 students. Question 19, “I am afraid that my language teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make,” showed that SPA 101 students disagree on this statement (M=3.65) and SPA 102 students also disagree (M=3.36), the mean score being again lower for second semester students. The statistically significant results of these five questions seem to indicate that, although the two groups did not show perceptions of anxiety in the majority of cases, the levels of confidence experienced by beginning foreign language students were higher than those of second semester students.
The absence of significance in the results of the remaining twenty-eight questions showed that the perceptions of the two groups surveyed were statistically similar. However, a visual comparison of the mean reveals that in all cases, the level of apprehension was higher for students taking SPA 102 courses than for students taking SPA 101 courses; this indicates that anxiety may not diminish with the experience acquired in two semesters of language learning.
Tables 4, 5 and 6 show the summary descriptive statistics for “Communication Apprehension,” “Fear of Negative Evaluation,” and “General Feeling of Anxiety.” The tables provide the total number of subjects for groups One and Two, the mean scores and standard deviations. In all the cases, the average summated score for Group Two is slightly lower than that of Group One. Also, in each case the standard deviation (within-group variability of summated scale scores) are approximately equal.
The goal of the MANOVA test was to ascertain whether the slightly lower average summate scale scores of Group Two were sufficiently lower to assume a statistically significant difference between the two groups. Table 7 shows the results of the MANOVA test.
A follow-up pairwise group comparison on each of the summated scale scores was conducted by applying a Fisher’s PLSD test to the data. The test preserved a “familywise” or over alpha level of 0.05 across the set of the three intercorrelated summated scale scores. Table 8 shows the results Of the application of Fisher’s test. When disaggregated and tested individually for between-group mean difference at the overall familywise alpha error rate of 0.05, Communication Apprehension and Fear of Negative Evaluation yielded significant differences. The General Anxiety scale, while marginal, was not significant at the same alpha level. This more than likely contributed to the overall 0.1064 p-value of the simultaneous MANOVA test.

Researchers have studied the effects of anxiety on foreign language learning since the 1970’s. In spite of substantial advances in teaching methods and techniques, apprehension continues to exist in the university foreign language classroom. This study investigates the perceived levels of anxiety experienced by a randomly-selected sample of beginning foreign language students in a regular university setting. The results indicate that some levels of anxiety were present in beginner classes and that these levels did not decrease after the completion of the second semester of language acquisition. The implication of the findings for anxiety, reduction programs are discussed.

Literature Review
As early as 1973, H.D. Brown predicted that the construct of anxiety was intricately intertwined with self-esteem, inhibition, and risk-taking, and that it played an important affective role in second language acquisition. The definition of anxiety is difficult as it can range from an amalgam of overt behavioral characteristics that can be studied scientifically to introspecting feelings that are epistemologically inaccessible. Common to anxiety is its generally unpleasant nature and its similarity to fear (Lader, 1975). The research into the relationship of anxiety to foreign language learning has provided mixed and confusing results because of the existence of numerous variables that can affect learning. Two of these variables are trait anxiety (an animic state of some individuals to become anxious in any situation), and state anxiety (apprehension experienced at a particular moment in time, for example, having to speak in a foreign language in front of classmates) (Spielberger, 1983). Another variable that may affect language acquisition is the students’ perceptions of their own communicative competence in both native and second language. This effect is compounded by the fact that these students tend to underestimate their competence relative to less anxious students (MacIntyre, Noels and Clement, 1997), and therefore become themselves anxious about their performance. Language learning can also be affected by direct and indirect psychological strategies used by instructors in the classroom. In a setting where the instructor uses a variety of strategies, language learning is facilitated. Thus, direct strategies such as rhyming or using gestures can directly enhance the learning of the foreign language. Indirect strategies, such as planned teaching tasks or increasing cultural awareness, if used by the instructor, can also increase language acquisition (MacIntyre and Noels, 1996), and subsequently reduce apprehension. Another construct related to anxiety in regular foreign language university classes may be related to apathy and disinterest on the part of the students because of inappropriate course content. Most of the studies done on foreign language anxiety at university level have been conducted in special settings; thus, in 1986, Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope conducted a survey among university students that already had shown concern about taking a foreign language class. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) reported studies in environments not representative of language learning in the regular classroom: One study was conducted on students taking intensive summer school classes, another on a group of adult students enrolled in an intensive summer school program, and yet another on TOEFL students, who, most likely, were anxious a priori as their acceptance to college may have depended on their performance.
The purpose of this study is to investigate and compare the perceived levels of anxiety experienced by a randomly-selected sample of foreign language (Spanish) students in a regular university setting at the beginning of their first semester with the levels of anxiety perceived by a similar sample of foreign language students at the end of their second semester. The study’s main objective is to ascertain the levels of anxiety for the two groups and to find if apprehension diminishes as students progress in the study of the language. If substantial levels of apprehension are found, the discussion of anxiety reduction programs is warranted.

Measurement of Anxiety Level
Anxiety is usually measured in one of three ways: by behavioral tests, where the actions of a subject is observed; by the subject’s self-report of internal feeling and reactions; or by physiological tests, where measures of heart rate, blood pressure, or palmar sweating are taken. Of these three measures, the self-reports and paper-and-pencil tests are not as easily quantifiable as the physiological tests, but they do have an advantage in that they are much more precise in focusing on a specific affective construct, say anxiety, than the physical measures which can only assume to be related to affective involvement. For these reasons, self-report and paper-and-pencil tests have been used more abundantly in applied psychology that the physiological tests (Scovel, 1978). Some of these behavioral tests have been used to measure the effects of anxiety on foreign language acquisition.
Horwitz et al. (1986) developed a 33-item paper-and-pencil questionnaire aimed at measuring levels of anxiety experienced by foreign language students. The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was designed to ask questions reflective of performance-related activities. The authors based the scale on the speculation that the students’ self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors affected the levels of anxiety found in foreign languages.

At age 14, Rola entered ninth grade in high school. She mastered the English language in six months, completed ninth grade and tested out of 10th, 11th and half of 12th grade. She attributes her academic achievement to her public school experience in the Middle Eastern country of Lebanon.
In Lebanon, teachers in public schools teach students two or three different languages, usually French and English. To shape our future, educators must recognize the potential a second language affords to students such as Rola. Research indicates that children who study a foreign language show increased cognitive ability and exceed normal classroom expectations. Why not teach a second language to elementary school youngsters? Teachers in many European and Asian countries do just that.
The majority of students born and raised in the United States lack formal education in another language. Sometimes, they are first introduced to a second language in high school when it is often difficult for them to master a second language. Newsweek supports this claim when it notes that “A child taught a second language after age ten is unlikely ever to speak it like a native.” Research supports this notion. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans show that by age four children’s brains are twice as active as adult brains (Mills, 1998). This high level of activity promotes trillions of connections between neurons in the brain. Michael Phelps, a biophysicist and co-inventor of the PET scan, adds “If we teach our children early enough, it will affect the organization, or `wiring’ of their brains” (Foreign Language and Youth, 1996).
In order to help students compete in a global economy, teachers in the United States must begin to teach children a second language at an early age. Aside from global competition, research also indicates that students who are proficient in a second language score higher on standardized tests conducted in English. This provides them with a competitive advantage in the work force.
Thus, the purpose of this article is to describe the advantages of a second language being taught to students at the elementary school level. Three currently-used language programs (Immersion, FLES, and FLEX) that facilitate the learning of a second language are also described.

Advantages of a Second Language
In 1992, the College Entrance Examination Board reported that students who averaged four or more years of a foreign language scored higher on the verbal section of the SAT than those who studied four or more years in any other subject matter area. Students with four years of a foreign language also scored higher on the math section of the test (Marcos, 1998).
In addition to higher test scores, there are other benefits in being proficient in a second language. Overall, society benefits. Americans fluent in other languages enhance the economy, strengthen their competitiveness abroad, improve global communication, and maintain political and security interests. In 1998, American companies lost 40 percent of sales in the international market because they had few employees who could relate to the foreign country (Llorente, 1992).
In 1956, Russia sent Sputnik into space. To compete in a world economy, the United States poured a vast amount of money into mathematics and science programs for students. Americans learned quickly that teachers in foreign countries teach youngsters a foreignlanguage so that they, the students, are prepared to be competitive in a global economy.
Knowledgeable students contribute to a robust economy which in turn benefits people of all ages from all walks of life. Students proficient in another language develop multiple ways to solve problems related to worldwide ecological and social issues, such as global warming, destruction of the rainforests, and comprehensive foreign policies.
It is important to introduce a second language to children at the elementary level because children at this level are capable of learning a second language with native-like pronunciation. Experts note that physiological changes occur in the maturing brain as a child enters puberty (Marcos, 1998). Mantrel (1996), notes that, “Synapses or avenues in the brain are opened up by foreign language instruction when it is introduced at an early age. If languages are not introduced at an early age, these synapses are not accessed, and language learning is much more difficult to acquire in later years” (Foreign Language and Youth, 1996). It is also important for teachers to understand that bilingual students will account for about 40 percent of school-age population by the year 2030 (Berliner & Biddle, 1995).
Teachers and administrators in many school districts are currently in the process of adopting a foreign language program for their school systems. Three such programs are often considered for adoption in many public school districts. These programs are Immersion, Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools (FLES), and the Foreign Language Experience (FLEX) program.
In order to help students compete in a global economy, teachers in the United States must begin to teach children a second language at an early age. Aside from global competition, research also indicates that students who are proficient in a second language score higher on standardized tests conducted in English. Three currently-used language programs (Immersion, FLES, and FLEX) that facilitate the learning of a second language are also described.
Advantages of a Second Language
In 1992, the College Entrance Examination Board reported that students who averaged four or more years of a foreign language scored higher on the verbal section of the SAT than those who studied four or more years in any other subject matter area. Students with four years of a foreign language also scored higher on the math section of the test (Marcos, 1998).
In addition to higher test scores, there are other benefits in being proficient in a second language. Overall, society benefits. Americans fluent in other languages enhance the economy, strengthen their competitiveness abroad, improve global communication, and maintain political and security interests. To compete in a world economy, the United States poured a vast amount of money into mathematics and science programs for students. Americans learned quickly that teachers in foreign countries teach youngsters a foreignlanguage so that they, the students, are prepared to be competitive in a global economy.
Knowledgeable students contribute to a robust economy which in turn benefits people of all ages from all walks of life. Students proficient in another language develop multiple ways to solve problems related to worldwide ecological and social issues, such as global warming, destruction of the rainforests, and comprehensive foreign policies.
It is important to introduce a second language to children at the elementary level because children at this level are capable of learning a second language with native-like pronunciation. Experts note that physiological changes occur in the maturing brain as a child enters puberty (Marcos, 1998). Mantrel (1996), notes that, “Synapses or avenues in the brain are opened up by foreign language instruction when it is introduced at an early age. If languages are not introduced at an early age, these synapses are not accessed, and language learning is much more difficult to acquire in later years” (Foreign Language and Youth, 1996). It is also important for teachers to understand that bilingual students will account for about 40 percent of school-age population by the year 2030 (Berliner & Biddle, 1995).
Teachers and administrators in many school districts are currently in the process of adopting a foreign language program for their school systems. Three such programs are often considered for adoption in many public school districts. These programs are Immersion, Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools (FLES), and the Foreign Language Experience (FLEX) program.

Immersion Program
The immersion program, a common type of bilingual education program, is mostly used in private schools. It is a kindergarten through grade 12 program which allows children to spend part or all of the school day learning a second language. Instruction is provided in the minority language 90 percent of the day while the majority language is used 10 percent of the day. For example, the teacher may teach reading, math, social studies, and science in Spanish for 90 percent of the day and teach spelling in English the other 10 percent of the day. In an immersion program, teachers use a hands-on approach in which students are forced to use the second language. In this program, the second language is used as a medium for content instruction rather than the subject of instruction itself. For example, Spanish is not taught as a separate subject, rather it is being used to teach other subjects such as science and social studies
In one immersion program, the second language is emphasized in the first few years of school. This is because of a lack of support for the minority language. In the United States, it is difficult for children to use a second language outside of school because members of society mainly speak English. Children lack the opportunities to use their new skills learned in a second language. As students progress through the grades, the immersion program provides instruction in the majority language until students master both languages, usually in grades four or five. By grade six, students usually develop academic proficiency in both languages. Thus, in math, science, social studies, and language arts they are able to perform at or above grade level in both languages (Thomas & Collier, 1998).
In the past 30 years, educators in school districts in Canada have adopted the immersion program of bilingual schooling. They have achieved success with both minority and majority language students, students of middle and low-income families, as well as students with learning disabilities (Cummins & Swain 1986; Genesee 1987).
The goal of the immersion program is for students to complete proficiency in a second language. However, not all bilingual education programs share this goal. Teachers in many schools do not expect complete proficiency, rather a general knowledge of the chosen language suffices. Some schools have opted to use the Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools (FLES) program in lieu of the immersion program.

FLES Program
Teachers who use the Foreign Language in the Elementary Schools (FLES) program gear their instruction towards language achievement, attitude shifts (toward those who speak the new language), and individual student growth. FLES is the most common type of bilingual education program used in public and parochial schools today. In FLES, a second language is presented to the students as a distinct subject, such as science or math. Experts feel that the optimum age for students to begin this program is age eight or nine. To begin FLES, teachers should involve the students as hearers. For example, a teacher may begin a lesson in Spanish by speaking the language to the students. By doing this, the teacher creates a foreign language environment in which students are presented with familiar scenes and surroundings first in linguistic terms and eventually in cultural terms (Brooks, 1964). For example, a teacher may give the students vocabulary words in French and then relate these meanings to the French culture. In FLES, it is recommended that any conscious analysis of grammar be deemphasized and the translation from one language to another be avoided. The preparation of materials used in the FLES program is rather complex and requires the collaboration of experienced teachers. To qualify as a FLES teacher, an individual must understand how children learn, should have a sufficient degree of speaking competency to “model” what the pupils are to learn, and be a specialist in the study of second language learning.
The FLES program deals with a certain amount of language proficiency with the exploration of various cultural components. For example, a teacher may have a French food tasting day in which children examine various French foods. Classroom teachers integrate culture with language learning as students find it easier to master the second language in this manner. A deeper sense of both the language and culture is developed in the FLES program. For example, children are able to understand the French Revolution or the Louvre when they experience both the Frenchlanguage and culture. In addition to FLES, educators in other school districts may adopt programs that emphasize various cultural aspects of the language spoken in that country. One such program is the FLEX program.

FLEX Program
In the Foreign Langauage Experience (FLEX) program tudents are introduced to elements of other cultures and related languages. In FLEX, students explore one or more languages and the cultures they represent. Teachers in some schools use this as an opportunity to introduce Latin and Greek (Marcos, 1996). For example, when the yen in Japan falls, countries worldwide are affected.
FLEX also provides a basis for later learning. When children learn the history of the Mexican-American warm junior high or high school, they can relate back to the Spanish language and related cultural experiences introduced in elementary school. In FLEX, less emphasis is placed on the attainment of language proficiency. Rather, FLEX aims to provide students with a foundation for the study of a foreign language. The FLEX program also helps students decide on which language to study in later grades (Marcos, 1996).
In the elementary classroom, the FLEX program is taught to students on a regular basis for a short time period or for a longer period of time on a less regular basis (Marcos, 1996). Only a small percentage of teaching time (1-5 percent per week) is dedicated to teaching a foreign language. Instruction is usually given in English (Curtain & Pesola, 1994).
The FLEX program provides students with information so they, the students, are able to develop an appreciation of other societies, cultures, and customs (Marcos, 1996). Some portions of the FLEX program focus on world cultures, which are often incorporated into the social studies curriculum. These programs also boost enrollment in foreign language classes in a school system itself.
Fluency in a second language is not the goal in the FLEX program. Lipton (1992) states that “FLEX is primarily a language/ culture/motivational program.” The program provides children with a general overview of what other cultures and their respective languages have to offer. FLEX motivates children to learn about the cultures and languages they encounter in the program. Lipton (1995) reports that some proficiency may be attained with a once-ortwice-a-week program that emphasizes functional language and cultural awareness. Principles in a general language attained in this program facilitate future foreign language learning that may be extended well into college. The goal of FLEX is to assist bilingual children like Rola to communicate effectively with people of other cultures throughout their lifetime.

Conclusion
Rola is adjusting to her new academic environment at college. She enjoys the diversity that higher education has to offer and acknowledges that many students befriend her. She loves to communicate with her friends in the languages they share. She “connects” with the diverse students she encounters on a daily basis. To Rola, the future is one of an interconnected world, with global travel and vast international communication networks.
To meet the needs of a global society, Rola knows that many U.S. businesses seek employees who are proficient in both English and another language. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) often waives a requirement of working three years in a professional capacity if the prospective employee is fluent in another language. To be employed by the United Nations, a person fluent in two or more languages has increased opportunities for work worldwide.
Teachers and administrators must consider the advantages of students, like Rola, who attain a second language. A second language helps students to communicate with people from diverse populations. If a house catches on fire and the victims speak Spanish, its advantageous for fire personnel to be fluent in Spanish. Being bilingual also enhances a student’s cognitive development and cultural awareness of diverse cultures.
In the end, society profits economitally, politically, and socially when citizens are able to communicate with people in other countries and cultures (Marcos, 1998). It is encouraging to note that one of the goals set forth by the National Education Goals Panel for 2000 is “…to prepare every American to compete in a global economy by being competent in a foreign language and familiar with another culture” (Cataldi, 1994).
Teachers need to promote bilingual education by working with their school administrators to determine the type of program that best meets the needs of students in their classrooms and schools. Immersion, FLES, and FLEX programs should be considered. Parents who are interested in learning a second language with their children should also be introduced to language programs such as Immersion, FLES or FLEX. These programs should be taken seriously because their advantages to students, teachers and parents are many. Rola is a product of such programs.

References
Brooks, Nelson, (1964) ERIC/CLL Clearinghouse on Language and Linguistics (Eric no. ED 018 175)
Berliner, D.C., & Biddle, B.J., (1995) The manufactured crisis: Myths, fraud, and the attack on America’s public schools. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Cataldi, Ricardo J. Bilingualism and early language acquisition-great assets. NASSPBulletin (Oct. 1994): 62-64. (Eric No. EJ 490930)
Bilingualism in education. New York: Longman
Languages and children: Making the match (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman
Foreign language and youth (1996, December 18) Mountain Democrat, Editorial Page
Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House
Lipton, G. (1992). Elementary foreign language programs. FLES*.An administrator’s handbook. Chicago, IL: National Textbook Company.
Focus on FLES*. Planning and implementingFLES*programs (foreign language in elementary schools). Baltimore, MD: National FLES* Institute
Llorente, Elizabeth. “Speaking of money.” Development of program and individual student evolution models for foreign language in the elementary school. ERIC Clearinghouse on Linguistics and Languages (Eric No. Marcos, K (1996). Foreign language exploratory programs: Introduction to language learning. ERIC/CLL Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (Eric No. Marocs, K (1998) Learning a second language. Our Children 24,1 (Aug.Sept.) 32-33 (Eric No. EJ 574514).
Educational Leadership 5, 3 (Dec-Jan) 23-26 (Eric No. EJ 556857).
Da’ad Naserdeen was a second-grade teacher at Lincoln Elementary School in the Toledo Public Schools at the time this article was written; she is now a Ph.D. student in early childhood education at the University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio.
Copyright Caddo Gap Press Spring 2001
Provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights Reserved

TEXT: WHAT IS AN EXPLORATORY LANGUAGE COURSE?
Within the foreign language field, the term “exploratory” refers to self-contained, nonsequential, interdisciplinary courses designed to introduce students to a variety of languages and cultures. Such courses differ from lengthy courses designed to teach a specific language (though exploratory courses use specific languages for examples) (Kennedy and De Lorenzo, 1985). These courses are taught in English except for the foreign language component, and they are usually offered in middle and junior high schools. Exploratory courses are found in most states, with interest in them increasing, especially in the Middle West and in the East.

WHY EXPLORATORY COURSES AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL?
One of the major thrusts of the middle school concept, and of the junior high school as originally conceived, is the provision of opportunities for children in the early adolescent stage of development to explore a broad range of academic and vocational fields. Advocates of exploratory programs feel that such programs are in keeping with the developmental needs of this age group (Hawkins, 1981). The exploratory foreign language course has, therefore, become closely identified with the middle school curriculum. Having been exposed to this type of course, the middle school pupil is better equipped to make a reasoned decision about future language study.

IS THE EXPLORATORY COURSE A NEW IDEA?
It grew in popularity until the post World War II era when the focus shifted to lengthy sequential programs beginning in elementary school. In the early 1970s, the course reemerged as a viable pre-high school foreign language experience with content surprisingly similar to that of the early courses (Kennedy and De Lorenzo, 1985).

HOW DO THE COURSES LOOK?
Exploratory courses fall under three broad classifications based on the nature of their content:
General Language. Content includes introduction to the phenomenon of language, its history and the idea of its structure; language families; comparisons among languages; a look at several languages, including artificial languages such as Esperanto; and the concept of computer languages.
Language Potpourri (or “Trial Language Study”). Teaching covers mited survival skills together with cultural material related to each language. Building readiness for more formal study of a foreign language can also be part of this course. The languages sampled are usually those offered in the school system.
Combination. The Kennedy/De Lorenzo survey revealed that most exploratory courses contained elements of both general language and language potpourri in a variety of organizational formats. In addition, several or all of the following elements may be incorporated into the models: (1) Latin as one of the languages explored, or infused (or both) throughout the course; (2) language heritage in the United States, e.g., the French, Spanish, German, or native American heritage; (3) career awareness, i.e., the role of foreign languages in the world of work; (4) languages other than those taught in the school system incorporated on a less formal basis as planned “experiences” during the course. Such languages could include a language commonly spoken in the community or one of the less commonly taught languages.
When instituting an exploratory course, the school system must decide which of such models it will establish. Then a curriculum guide as well as a detailed curriculum should be written. The guide should include policies and course organization; goals, concepts, objectives; actual phrases and expressions to be explored for each language (in dialog form); cultural material and projects; sample tests, including an end-of-course test; homework suggestions and grading policy; and basic daily lesson format.
The basic daily lesson format should include foreign language practice; linking the foreign language with English skills and vocabulary building; culture discussion, projects, and reports; review of the phrases practiced; and the learning of songs. Homework should be given, and students graded as in any other course.
Because of their flexible nature, exploratory courses can fit into the scheduling pattern of most middle schools. A course less than a semester long, however, leaves little time to address the major components, particularly the specific language skills.

WHAT PREPARATION SHOULD TEACHERS HAVE?
Few institutions offer college level courses like the “World of Language” course at the University of Maryland-Baltimore County, courses specifically designed to prepare students to teach exploratory courses. Consequently, foreign language teachers, preferably those who have a background in more than one foreign language, teach the exploratory course. If teachers in a school only know one language, they can exchange classes at the end of a specified period of time, such as at the end of the semester. Or, as experience in the Prince George’s County, Maryland, schools shows, some foreign language teachers may quite easily acquire survival skills in a second foreign language, allowing schools more flexibility in which languages will be included.
Regardless of the teachers’ professional preparation, an orientation session should be provided for all teachers who will teach the course for the first time. The session should be designed to ensure that teachers understand the concept of the course and that they follow a daily basic lesson format similar to the one described above. The exploratory course is NOT a “watered down” Level 1 course, but rather an interdisciplinary course involving language development and several languages and cultures. Additional in-service sessions should be provided to help the teachers prepare their own long-range plan based on the curriculum.

WHAT TYPES OF MATERIALS ARE USED?
Materials already in social studies and foreign language departments can be adapted. Maps, texts about countries, filmstrips, films, travel guides, culture pamphlets, and books containing survival phrases and expressions for several languages are all appropriate, as are texts dealing with general language concepts, Latin and Greek roots, and the like. Students can also create materials during “hands-on” experience. Such materials can be used for teaching other students. Additionally, students should be required to keep a notebook exclusively for the course.

RESOURCES
The following public school systems are frequently mentioned in the literature as having long-standing successful programs, and they are willing to share materials and guides. Contact the Foreign Language Division.
Topeka Public Schools (1970) 624 24th Street Topeka, KS 66611
Baltimore County Public Schools (1970) 6901 Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21204
Prince George’s County Public Schools (1973) Sasscer Administrative Bldg. 14201 School Lane Upper Marlboro, MD 20870
Fairfax County Public Schools (1974) The Administration Center 10700 Page Avenue Fairfax, VA 22030 (800) 691-2502
Waukesha Public Schools (1979) 222 Maple Avenue Waukesha, WI 53186
Hawkins, E. MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE CURRICULUM. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
AWARD WINNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE PROGRAMS. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company, 1981.
Stern, H.H. “Toward a Multidimensional Foreign Language Curriculum.” In FOREIGN LANGUAGES: KEY LINKS IN THE CHAIN OF LEARNING, ed. Robert J. Mead. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 1983. UNTERRICHTSPRAXIS 15(1) (1982):60-63.

In June 1999, the British Dyslexia Association (BDA), in cooperation with IDA and the European Dyslexia Association, held a conference on bilingualism, multilingualism, and dyslexia, including the study of modern foreign languages. For the first time educators from around the world gathered together to examine thorny questions about the effects of language problems in the native tongue on learning a second or third language, similarities and differences between languages and their effect on at-risk learners, and crosslinguistic transfer of linguistic rules. Part IV presents three views on dyslexia and learning a foreign language: the perspective of researchers on bilingualism; that of an adult dyslexic who struggled to learn French; and a case study report of two students with characteristics of hyperlexia who studied a foreign language.
In the first article, Geva and her colleagues report on dyslexia among children for whom English is a second (foreign) language (ESL). They examine risk factors for reading difficulties over two years in ESL children in comparison to children for whom English is their first language. Their results indicate the importance of phonological awareness and rapid naming for bilingual learners, and support research findings on children’s learning to read their first language.
The second article by Charlann Simon provides a personal perspective on learning a foreign language, that of a speechlanguage specialist who has training in English as a Second Language and is herself dyslexic. Simon describes her process of learning French as a dyslexic from both professional and personal perspectives. She provides useful tips to teachers of foreign languages, including the advice that teachers be flexible in their expectations and help students to identify their language strengths. The author urges teachers to structure the foreign language for dyslexics and to help them understand the task at hand by directly teaching metacognitive strategies.
In the third article, Sparks and Artzer present the first study of its kind on hyperlexia and foreign languages. Both students were reading words accurately before the age of five. One student meets the accepted criteria for hyperlexia; the other presents some hyperlexic behaviors. The authors make a case for their conclusion that word recognition extends across alphabetic orthographies (i.e., the students also exhibited strengths in word recognition and relative weaknesses in comprehension in Spanish).
The articles add to a growing body of literature on the relationship between native and foreign language learning in relation to individuals with dyslexia.
Copyright International Dyslexia Association 2000
Provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights Reserved

“Parlez-vous francais?” When you went to high school, you had an option of whether or not you wanted to learn a foreign language, but today, as more children are being raised bilingual or multilingual (able to speak more than two languages), you must be wondering, “Should my children learn another language?”
Yes, it is extremely important that your children learn a foreign language, as early as possible, says Dr. Carolyn R. Durham, chair of the foreign language department and associate professor of Spanish and Portuguese at North Carolina A&T State University.

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The languages your children study should not be limited because you cannot predict which one will be more beneficial to them. Spanish and French are truly international languages, says Stanley B. Lemons, president and CEO of Stanley Maria, Inc., a language services company in Chicago. “If you have those under your belt, you can travel almost anywhere in the world and communicate with people,” Lemons says.
Society has realized the importance of being bilingual, and as a result, many institutions, including elementary schools, are now teaching foreign language courses.
But what can you do if your school district does not have foreign language classes? Experts suggest that you enroll your children in a local foreign language center, buy books and CDs or even borrow library materials. And as a parent, you can help your children maintain a new language by learning it with them. This way, they will have someone to practice basic conversations with and this helps with language development and fluency.
Parents should realize that children will not pick up a new language immediately. “Children may take things in, but be unable to speak it,” says Lemons. “It doesn’t mean they haven’t learned something, so a parent should understand that it’s an on-going process; it’s not a one-shot endeavor.”
First, speaking more than one language helps with cognitive development, and can help increase a student’s SAT scores. Second, your kids will have a better understanding of people and other cultures. Third, many businesses are looking for bilingual employees, so this will give your children an edge in the corporate world in the future.
The most important thing a parent should remember when it comes to teaching children a new language is that the experience should be fun. Kids who are feeling anxious or pressured to speak fluently will have a harder time learning and maintaining their new language.
COPYRIGHT 2005 Johnson Publishing Co.
COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning

The students in this study identified multiple factors in their struggles and triumphs in changing countries. They could describe their cultural experiences in both places as well as their attempts to cope with differences in schooling and living in general. A wide range of domains impacted the students’ acculturation successes: language learning, school life, racial dynamics, hobbies and activities, making future plans, cultural differences, friendships, homesickness, peer relationships, career plans, support in the US, dating, trips home, and insider/outsider feelings.

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Cultural experiences have a strong impact on the students’ campus and community perceptions. The language learners found themselves entangled in complex multidimensional cultural webs which interact with language. They needed adult and peer relationships to sustain them while they were building new social relationships concurrent with new school and cultural competencies. Specific adult interventions were needed from coaches, teachers, family members, counselors, and other support people in their lives.
The implications of this study have a bearing on teacher education and the development of teacher skills. Both teacher educators and new teachers need an in-depth understanding of second language acquisition processes coupled with language development strategies to address the students’ many levels of proficiency. “Lumping” all ELLs together as if they all had the same instructional needs is a mistake. Instruction of the English language itself should be done by those who have an interest and demonstrated expertise in teaching a foreign language rather than placing the burden on every teacher, no matter where their abilities lie. This requires teacher involvement and strong motivation for working with transitioning students, as well as cultural and linguistic competencies. Perhaps the single most important part of impacting student acculturation is listening to the students themselves.

References
Brown, D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Chiang, Y. & Schmida, M. (2002). Language identity and language ownership: Linguistic conflicts of first-year university writing students. Enriching ESOL pedagogy, pp. 393-409.
Cummins, J. (2001). Empowering minority students: A framework for instruction. Harvard Educational Review. Vol. 71, Iss. Delpit, L. & Dowdy, J. (Eds.). (2002). The skin that we speak. New York: The New Press.
Diaz-Rico, L (2000). Intercultural communication in teacher education: The knowledge base for CLAD teacher credential programs. The CATESOL journal. Vol. 12, No. 1;p. 145-161.
Fisher, D. (2001). Teachers’ perceptions of the supports and resources needed to prepare English language learners for the future. The CATESOL journal. Older struggling English learners. Closing the achievement gap. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Empathy and second language learning. Language learning. Vol. 24, pp. 111-130.
Researching English language and literacy development in schools. Educational researcher, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 14-25.
McCafferty, S. (2002). Adolescent second language literacy: Language-culture, Literature, and identity. Reading Research and Instruction. Vol. 41, Iss. Rumberger, R. & Gandara, P. (2004). Seeking equity in the education of California’s English learners. Teachers College Record. Vol. 106, No. 10, October 2004. Social distance as a factor in second language acquisition. Language Learning, Vol. 26, pp. 135-143.
Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Marjo Mitsutomi, University of Redlands, CA
VernaLynn McDonald, University of Redlands, CA
Mitsutomi, Ph.D., is Director of Master’s Program in Curriculum and Instruction, and McDonald, Ed.D., is Assistant Professor in the School of Education, University of Redlands.
COPYRIGHT 2005 Rapid Intellect Group, Inc.
COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning

Initially, more than 30 immigrant students at a local high school were asked to participate in the project. The ESL program director assisted as each student received a home permission form. Some were translated into Spanish or Indonesian. Eight males and seven females returned the permission slip. Both researchers were able to complete interviews with 15 freshmen to senior students, representing nine different countries. All of these students were in the category of Newly Arrived Learners with Adequate Formal Schooling (Freeman & Freeman, 2002). For the sake of anonymity, each student chose a pseudonym. See issue website http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/ sum2005.htm

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The students were interviewed to elicit a broad range of linguistic and cultural information. Both sets of interviews were tape recorded and transcribed. An abbreviated version of Spradley’s (1977) ethnographic interviewing methodology gathered information about the ELLs’ acculturation process. The following steps were appropriate to the students’ language levels: 1) locating informants, 2) interviewing informants, 3) making an ethnographic record, 4) asking descriptive questions, 5) analyzing interviews, 6) making a domain analysis, and 7) discovering cultural themes. Transcriptions were coded into repeating and significant domains as they emerged from the data. Domain summaries were written for 14 topics the students mentioned or repeated (Spradley, 1977).
The interview technique used to learn about the students’ English proficiency is the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Language Oral Proficiency Interview (ACTFL OPI). When administered officially, the OPI is conducted by two trained and certified interviewers. Its purpose is to elicit speech samples of foreign language speakers to identify proficiency. To an untrained listener, the entire interview sounds much like an engaged conversation.
The official OPI scale range includes four major levels of language proficiency: novice, intermediate, advanced and superior. Novices in a new language have no functional ability; speech is limited to memorized material. Those nearing the intermediate level can create with language, ask and answer simple questions on familiar topics and handle a simple situation or transaction. They speak in loosely connected sentences. The characteristics of advanced speakers are that they produce paragraph-length discourse. They can narrate, describe in past, present and future time/aspect, and handle a complicated situation or transaction. Superior speakers can support opinions, hypothesize, discuss abstract topics and handle linguistically unfamiliar situations.

Results
The unofficial OPI interviews revealed that two of the students were very high novices or barely emerging intermediates, five were clearly advanced, and the remaining students were in the intermediate range. The most advanced speakers of English had certain common characteristics. They were critical of their English ability feeling the need to improve (accent, for example), yet they all liked English. The advanced ELLs had clear personal goals for their future, enjoyed reading or writing, and engaged in watching TV. They also expressed belonging to some in-group, for example, a circle friends or a sports team.
The profiles of the two weakest speakers were similar in that both had lived a relatively short amount of time in the US. Matte, a senior from Mexico, had studied in the high school for less than two years. He had advanced from no English ability to expressing himself in simply structured English. Here he was proud of his accomplishments, which included night school and work on the weekends. It appears that his prior schooling in Mexico was inconsistent or minimal. Brian, on the other hand, had a solid educational background in his native country of Malaysia where he had studied Chinese and English (8 years) besides his native language. His time in the US, one year, was even shorter than Marte’s. During the interview he spoke very little and seemed not to understand what was said to him, explaining that he had never actually used English until he arrived in his California school. As already stated, language proficiency was one of the topics that concerned the students the most. For example, Cecilia commented on her experience in her home country with learning English and then learning ESL in southern California:
Marte, who struggled with self-expression in English the most, said the following:
M: Last thing–new teachers–take patience–like for the new learning because is a hard language–so please!
Brian created a powerful image of the effort required to simultaneously learn the language of a new country and complex academic subject matter by saying that “steam … steam” would come out of his brain especially in biology class. ELLs are, indeed, faced with learning multiple Englishes concurrently: conversational or home English, work related or professional English, and formal/academic English (Baker, in Delpit, 2002, p. 51).
Irene from Ukraine, for example, thought she would never be happy in the US. Sergio, like Irene, was equally unadjusted and unhappy, having difficulty establishing friendships at school. Both felt psychologically isolated and alone and did poorly in their academic studies with the lowest GPAs among the participants. Daniel’s concern was that he wasn’t sure whether people were sincere when they spoke to him; he couldn’t read his American peers well yet. Gina’s description of her gradual acculturation included the following quote:
G: I have more Korean culture than I have American culture. The strongest developmental and acculturation areas affecting the interviewed students’ perception of their language and academic learning were the following: language skills, school as related to teachers and instruction, race, hobbies/activities, future plans, culture, friendships, homesickness, peers, career plans, support in the U.S., dating, trips home, and insider/outsider dynamics. Although outside of the scope of this paper, each domain offers rich information about the ELLs’ experience in a US high school.

Summary of Findings
The findings of this study are two-fold, touching on issues of immigrant students’ linguistic and cultural development in one high school. Second language proficiency appears to develop in sequential steps; the students’ speaking skills emerged in a predictable timetable. Those with the longest exposure to communicating with native English speakers, with the added desire for mastery, had the strongest oral skills. It is noteworthy that not one ELL had mastered English in a year! Whether or not the students had actually studied English as a foreign language in their home country seemed also of little relevance in this regard. Prior formal study of English was reported helpful when these same students engaged in reading and writing assignments at school. Although some generalities emerged from the linguistic portion of this study, each language learner’s English proficiency profile was distinctly unique.